Glossary

To explain all the common procedures would increase the length of each recipe.  It was decided to put many of the steps and operations in the glossary because as they are mastered it is redundant to keep repeating them. 

General Hints:

The glossary will supply definitions of some of the methods used to prepare the recipes and add information about ingredients.  I have tried to explain the methods used and not to use jargon, but must apologize if I have left anything unclear.  I hope it may help explain some unfamiliar terms and add to your knowledge of ingredients. 

When the ingredients read:

2 peaches, peeled and sliced

It means:

Select 2 peaches and slice them after peeling them.  I didn’t include remove the seed as that would be understood.  

If it reads:

2 cups sliced peaches

It means:

After preparing the peaches, slice enough to make 2 cups. 

Acidulated water has lemon juice, vinegar, or Cream of Tartar added.  Fruit is temporarily placed in the acidic water to retard the discoloration.  Drain the fruit well before using.

A la mode is a French term for “in the fashion” and in America it refers to pie served with a scoop of ice cream. 

Avocados are picked “green” and need to ripen at room temperature until the fruit yields to gentle pressure.  Don’t refrigerate until they are soft.  To hasten the process, put them in a brown paper bag or in a sack of flour for a few days.  To check, pry the little stem off and if it comes off easily, the avocado is ripe.  When ripe, they can be stored for up to a week in the refrigerator. 

Avocados turn grey when cut unless the pieces are placed in enough lemon juice to coat the cut edges.  Drain before adding to the salad. 
Slices may be floated as a garnish on soups, but don’t cook them.  They will become bitter. 

Bacon Drippings are the liquid, melted fat, and little browned pieces left in the frying pan after cooking bacon strips.  Measured amounts of drippings can be frozen for use in recipes, as desired. 

Bain Marie or water jacket is a hot water bath to cook custards in the oven.  The baking dish is set in a pan of hot water that will keep the heat even. 

Bake Blind is the term to describe baking pie crusts without filling.  Hot air will cause the crust to raise and pull away from the pan, causing it to shrink.  Before baking, either prick sides and bottom of the pastry with a fork or lay a piece of foil into the crust and pour in a cup of rice or beans to weight the crust down.  Remove foil and rice about 5 minutes before done so the crust may brown. 

Baking is the process of cooking in the oven with dry heat.  The temperatures in this cookbook are given in Fahrenheit (F°) degrees.  Reduce heat by 25 degrees if using glass pans. 

Baking Pans have straight sides and come in many sizes and shapes.  Often the beginning cook does not have a wide variety of pans.  Keep in mind that if you use glass pans, you must reduce the baking temperature by 25 degrees.  If a pan is too big or small, it may change the time required, so bake until done.  The results may change but with care the cake will be OK.
To change the size of pan, use the following suggestions:

Use shortening or cooking spray to grease the pans, if called for.  Put a spoonful of flour, powdered sugar, or cocoa powder in the pan and tilt it until the flour coats the pan.  Turn pan over trash can and tap to dislodge and discard the excess flour. 

• Angel Food pans, usually two pieces with straight sides and a tube in the center.  
• Bundt pans are one piece tube pans with sculpted sides. 
• Jelly Roll Pan is a cookie sheet that has a low 1 inch rim on all four sides. 
• Muffin tins have six to 12 cups or indentations. 
• Springform pans have removable sides with a spring clip.

Beans or legumes add fiber and protein to the dish. 
If using dried beans, they must be soaked six or more hours before cooking.  To reduce flatulence, drain and replace the soaking water at least twice during the soaking.  Adding ground ginger to the cooking liquid helps too. 
When you first put the soaked beans on to cook, bring to a boil for the first 15 minutes and then reduce the temperature for the remainder of the cooking time. 
Do not add salt or tomatoes to the dried beans as they are cooking as this will keep them firm. 

• Dried beans include black, kidney, Lima, and pinto beans.  Canned beans can be substituted to save preparation time.  Dried Haricots, like lentils and split peas, do not need to be soaked before cooking.  
• Soy beans have twice the protein of other legumes.  Roasted soy beans add crunch to salads.  Edamame, the immature, raw bean, can be cooked in their pod and then removed and mixed with other beans. 
• Snap or green beans have eatable pods with the immature seeds. 
• Sprouts must be crisp and rinsed well.  Do not use if slimy. 

Beating means to vigorously stir to add air and volume, usually by using an electric beater. 

Blanch means to lightly cook the outside layer of a vegetable or fruit.  Plunge it in boiling water and then quickly into ice water.  Don’t overload the pot.  This is used to remove skins from tomatoes, nuts, etc. or set color and texture.  Prepares fruits and vegetables for freezing. 

Blend is to use an electric blender to thoroughly mix or liquefy ingredients. 

Broccoli is a versatile vegetable that is as good raw as it is cooked.  To cut into florets, cut off the flower at the stem.  Grate the stem into the salads or save the stalk for soup.

Bulgur is cracked wheat that was steamed and dried.  The grains are then ground.  It doesn’t need to be cooked, just warmed and softened     

Cabbage has long been used in slaws, but is also a great accent to other salad greens.  

• To shred the cabbage, cut the head in quarters and lay cut side down on the cutting board and slice in narrow strips.  Place in a colander and place under running water.  Drain well. 
• In addition to the Green and Red heads, leaf cabbages (Napa and Bok Choy), are available year around. 

Candy Thermometers are usually a clear glass tube with a bulb on the end.  They have a clip on the side so it can be hooked to the pot.  Be careful not to let the bulb touch the bottom of the pan. 

Candying is the process of boiling in sugar syrup to sweeten and preserve. 

Capers are the pickled unopened buds of a shrub.  Drain and rinse before using.    

Carrots are often used in salads because they are sweet and add texture and color.  When selecting carrots, choose ones with leaves attached as they are usually fresher, avoid splits and try for ones with a rounded root tip. 

Cauliflower is a mild vegetable when used raw in salads.  The flowery top is called the curd.  Remove the leaves before cutting the curd into even bite-sized pieces to form florets.  The core can be reserved for soups. 

Celery adds flavor and crunch to salads.  There is some confusion in recipes about what to call the individual stems or stalks.  They are ribs.  The entire head is called a bunch.  The interior group of small ribs is called the heart. 

Chocolate Products

The Aztec Indians believed that wisdom came from eating the Cacao bean.  In 1502, they were brought to Spain by Columbus.  Inside the large pod are 20 to 50 seeds. 

Cocoa powder is created by removing the cocoa fat and liquor from chocolate.  .  Sift cocoa powder over the dessert by placing a small amount in a sieve and tap it on the side.  Do it just before serving so it doesn’t become soggy. 

Solid chocolate is sold in boxes containing individual 1 ounce squares.  It contains cocoa butter, which allows chocolate to remain solid but melt in your mouth.  The process of melting chocolate to use as a coating is called tempering. 
Liquids may be placed in the pan before melting chocolate, but if added while melting, the chocolate will seize.  Even a drop of water can cause the warm chocolate liquid to get stiff and clumpy.  Do not heat above 115 degrees. 

To melt using the microwave, break up the pieces and place in safe glass cup or a heavy zip lock bag, unsealed.  Heat at 50% for 30 seconds.  Stir, return to microwave oven for another 30 seconds at half power, and stir.  The chocolate will appear whole and unmelted until you stir it.  Reduce time to 10 second intervals at half power until completely melted. 

A double boiler may be used when melting chocolate.  Place broken, unwrapped chocolate in top pan, place over hot water and allow to heat for 10 to 12 minutes.  Do not bring water in lower pan to a full boil as it may thicken the chocolate or cause it to curdle.  Do not put the lid on, as steam would harm the chocolate.  Stir and continue to heat until melted.  Be careful as chocolate scorches easily. 

Chocolate may be melted in an oven set at the lowest temperature.  Unwrap, break up or cut into pieces, and place in ovenproof cup.  Allow to heat for 5 minutes and then turn the oven off.  Leave in the oven for another 10 minutes.  Stir well. 

• Unsweetened or ‘baking’ chocolate has no added sweetener.
  If you do not have unsweetened chocolate, you may substitute 3 level Tablespoons cocoa powder and 1 Tablespoon vegetable shortening or oil for each ounce or square of chocolate. 
• Dark or Bittersweet is not overly sweet and has a strong chocolate flavor.  A small amount of vanilla may be added. 
• Couverture is a form of tempered chocolate used to coat candy.  You may prepare your own topping by adding either shortening or paraffin to be melted with the chocolate.  The ratio is about 1 teaspoon shortening to 1 ounce chocolate.  Do not use butter or margarine as they include some water. 
• Semisweet is the most commonly used baking chocolate.  Most chocolate chips are semisweet. 
  Substitute 6 Tablespoons cocoa powder, 4 Tablespoons shortening, and 7 Tablespoons sugar for 6 ounces of semisweet chocolate. 
• German chocolate was named for the inventor.  The bar is a little more brittle because less cocoa butter is added to the dark chocolate.  The result is sweet and smooth. 
• Milk chocolate, invented by the Swiss in 1876, has cream or milk solids added to give it a lighter flavor and color.  Although mild in flavor, it is rarely used in baking as the milk proteins change the texture when heated. 
• White Chocolate is not considered chocolate as it doesn’t have any chocolate liquor.  It does have cocoa butter which is the fat extracted from beans.  It is usually combined with milk solids, sugar and flavorings. 

Colander is a bowl with holes in it to drain liquid. 

Cookie cutters may be metal or plastic, but need sharp edges.  Dip metal ones in flour to help the cookie come off.  Spray plastic ones with cooking spray.  Always work from the outside edges of the dough toward the middle and place the cutters as close together as possible. 

Cookie sheets do not have sides all the way around as that mis-directs the heat.  They may be greased if instructed or lined with foil of parchment paper.  Do not use waxed paper as the wax will melt into the cookie.  Air cushioned cookie sheets will require a different temperature setting.  Check with the manufacturer. 

Creaming is an important technique.  The shortening is beaten until soft and fluffy; sugar is added slowly and is beaten until batter is soft and creamy.  Tiny air bubbles are formed in the batter and will soften it to create a light texture.  Beating at too high speed will damage the air bubbles and the cake will become dense. 

Croutons are dried or fried cubes of bread used to add texture and crunch to the dish.  

Cucumber comes in three types:

• Regular dark green ones, when purchased in grocery stores, have a wax coating and should be peeled. 
• English has a mild softer skin and isn’t peeled.  
• Pickling.  Unless they are very small, pickling cucumbers aren’t used in salads. 

Cut

• A chiffionade is very finely shredded leafy vegetables resembling rags.  Roll the leaves into tube and slice across the bundle. 
• Mince is to cut into tiny pieces.
• Dice is to cut into ? to ¼ inch cubes.  
• Chop is to cut into even sided pieces about ¼ to ½ inch.
• Cube is to cut into shape of dice over ½ inch per side. 
• Chunk is to cut into large pieces
• Julienne is to cut into long strips about ? by ? by 2 inches. Also called matchsticks. 
• Slice is to cut into long flat pieces. 

Cutting In is the phrase used to describe breaking up fat and coating it in flour.  It is accomplished by using a pastry blender or 2 kitchen knives to cut through the fat, breaking it up into tiny pieces.  The flour will keep the pieces separate and this creates the flakes in pastry and cookies. 

Dairy Products

Most recipes will specify the type of dairy product called for.  When not specified, “milk” in these recipes is whole fresh milk.  If dietary restrictions require it, the  substitution of skim or low fat milk will be OK. 

If the recipe calls for “scalded” milk, the milk is preheated in a saucepan that has been rinsed with water.  The milk is heated until tiny bubbles begin to form around the edge.  

Milk

• Buttermilk or Sour Milk is used in recipes that use baking soda to cause the batter to rise.  Buttermilk is the product left over after butter is churned.  It is highly acidic.  Today it is low-fat milk with an additive that causes it to thicken and gain a tangy taste. 
  To create sour milk, add 1 Tablespoon of vinegar to a cup of milk and allow it to stand for five minutes before using. 
  An equal amount of yogurt may be substituted for buttermilk. 
• Skim has all the fat removed.  This reduces calories and the richness.
• Low-fat milk has half the cream of regular whole milk.
• Whole is fresh milk with out adding or removing anything. 
• Evaporated milk has the excess liquid removed and is canned.  It may be made from whole milk or skim so the fat content varies.  While not substituted for its cousin, Sweetened Condensed milk, it may replace cream and may be whipped by: 

Adding 3 Tablespoons lemon juice for every 13 ounces can.  Pour into loaf pan and freeze for ice begins to form around the edge (About 30 minutes), or up to 12 hours.  Remove from freezer, place in cold mixing bowl and whip until it thickens.  (It will increase in volume threefold.)

• Sweetened Condensed milk is similar to evaporated milk as the excess liquid has been removed.  However it is thicker and has added sugar.  They are not interchangeable.  Gail Borden first canned condensed milk in Liberty, Mississippi about 1860. 
  Sweetened Condensed milk doesn’t create sugar grains when heated and doesn’t form ice crystals in frozen desserts.  It may be thickened by adding citrus juice. 

In an emergency, you may make your own sweetened, condensed milk by blending together 1 cup powdered milk, ? cup boiling water, ? cup granulated sugar, and 3 Tablespoons butter.  Blend until smooth and sugar is dissolved.  Cover and store in refrigerator. 

• Dry instant granules or powdered milk has the liquid removed.  It is often used to add creaminess and protein to other dishes.  It may be whipped like cream. 
• Soy, rice, and other vegetable or nut milks require recipe changes to use instead of cow’s milk.  They may curdle when added to lemon juice or coffee.  But because of their high protein content and fewer allergic responses, try using them. 

Cream

Whipped cream has reached soft peaks when a spike forms when you lift the beaters from the cream.  It will slowly curl over at the tip.  If it stands up stiffly, the cream has been over beaten. 

• Heavy or double cream has the highest amount of butterfat (36% to 42%) and is often used as a sauce.  
• Whipping cream will whip best and double in amount when very cold (50 degrees).  When added to hot sauces it is less likely to curdle than half & half.  Add powdered sugar after the cream has almost reached full volume. 
  To stabilize whipped cream so it may be prepared ahead, add melted plain gelatin while whipping the cream. 

For 2 cups of cream use 1 teaspoon gelatin soaked in 2 Tablespoons cold water.  Place in custard cup, put cup in pan of simmering water until gelatin melts and dissolves.  Be careful not to allow extra water to mix with the gelatin.

Cool Whip is a good substitute for whipped cream, as it is stored in the freezer and has fewer calories than cream.  Dream Whip is a powdered product that can be used successfully, but is harder to locate. 

• Light or half & half cream does not whip and may curdle in presence of high acid content ingredients or high heat. 
• Crème Fraîche is a manufactured nutty, thickened cream.  It is most similar to the naturally fermented sour cream your grandma used.  It doesn’t curdle when heated so is often used in sauces.   If the recipe isn’t heated, you may substitute drained sour cream.

Crème Fraiche may be created by adding 2 Tablespoons buttermilk or sour cream to 1 cup whipping cream and heating it slowly to 90 degrees and then putting it in a loosely covered glass container.  Place it in a warm place to ripen for 6 to 8 hours to ferment and thicken.  Store covered in the refrigerator and use with in 2 weeks. 

Mexican Crema is similar to Crème Fraîche and may be created by stirring together 1 cup heavy cream and 1 cup sour cream and allowing it to ripen for 8 hours at room temperature. 

• Modern sour cream is made by adding a culture to cream.  The product is heated and then cooled.  We can mo longer create sour cream at home because our milk is pasteurized. 
  When exposed to high temperature, sour cream may curdle and Crème Fraîche is a good substitute. 

Yogurt

Made from the milk of cows, goats or sheep, yogurt is a mild flavored substitute for sour cream.  It is cultured with active beneficial bacteria to thicken and add the tangy flavor. 

Cheese

Firm or Hard Cheese

• Soft cheeses like Monterey Jack and Mozzarella have a mild flavor. 
• Firm cheeses include Cheddar and Swiss.  They have a wide variety of flavors. 
• Hard cheese like Parmesan and Romano are grated before using.  Spray the grater blades with vegetable oil to make it easier to clean. 
• Blue-veined cheese such as Roquefort is strong flavored.  Crumble over dish. 
• Processed cheese like Velveeta is soft and melts easily.  Partially freeze cheese before grating. 

Fresh Cheese

• Cream cheese is mild, creamy, and smooth with the richness of butter.  Philadelphia Cream Cheese went on sale in 1885. 
• Cottage cheese is moist, bland, and has a soft curd that is readily available and is often used as a substitute for Ricotta and Mascarpone cheese.  The curds or lumps add texture. 
• Ricotta cheese is made from whey, the liquid left after butter or cheese solids are separated from cream.  It forms small soft curds. 
• Mascarpone is technically not cheese, but aged cream.  It is thicker and more buttery than cream cheese. 
• Quark is a fresh German cheese.  Cream cheese is an acceptable substitute. 

Decorate or Garnish

Trimming the plate or serving to add to its appeal takes imagination and a little flair. 

• Pool or drizzle a sauce on the plate for each serving.  Choose contrasting colors and complimentary flavors.  (Raspberry sauce with Chocolate Mousse; Custard Sauce with Peach Pie)
• Top with flavored or colored whipped cream
• Contrasting ice cream flavor with warm cake
• Sprinkle with nuts, candy bits, or grated rind.  Sprinkles, Nonpareils, and Jimmies have been used to decorate dishes since the early nineteenth century. 

Dollop is a scoop or spoonful of something soft like whipped cream. 

Dot is to scatter small hunks of butter over the dish. 

Double Boiler is a two piece pot with a lid.  The bottom pot is filled with boiling water up to the level that almost touches the top pan.  The food is placed in the top pan and the hot air cushion protects the food from direct heat. 
If you do not have a double boiler, place a round bottomed metal bowl into a tight fitting pot.  Put boiling water in the pot, but do not allow it to touch the bottom of the bowl.  The steam forms a gentle heat between the bowl and the pot. 

Drain is to remove liquid from solids.  Often use colander or strainer. 

Dust is to sprinkle a dry ingredient like powdered sugar in a fine even pattern.  The easiest way is to put it in a small fine screen strainer and tap the edge. 

Eggs used are large size chicken eggs, unless otherwise stated.  Each egg will weigh about 2¼ ounces; contain 1 Tablespoon yolk and 2 Tablespoons white.  The color of the shell makes no difference.  Use fresh, uncracked clean eggs.

Eggs should be cooked to an internal temperature of 160 degrees to destroy any bacteria present or be treated with an acidic agent that will kill it.  Pasteurized eggs like Egg Beaters have been heated enough to make them safe for recipes that do not include cooking. 

Whole eggs should not be beaten until all ingredients have been prepared and are ready to be used.  The bubbles beaten in will collapse very soon.  
When beating whites and yolks separately, beat the whites first as they will retain their lightness longer than yolks.  The whites on the beater will not affect the yolks. 
Use an egg separator or the three bowl method when separating eggs.  This insures no yolk will fall into the whites and ruin them if you must beat them stiff.  Crack eggs over one bowl and allow the whites to slide into that bowl.  Place the yolk in the second bowl and if no yolk fell into the white, pour it into the third bowl.  Repeat until all whites have been separated.  Use eggs with broken yolks in scrambled eggs or a recipe that calls for whole eggs. 

• Eggs that are to be hard cooked are not boiled as the high temperature may cause a green discoloration around the yolk and turn the whites rubbery. 
  Place eggs in pan of cold water that covers the eggs.  Bring water to a boil, cover, and remove from heat.  Allow to sit for 20 minutes.  Drain, cover with ice water and when cool, crack the shell.  Roll eggs between the palms of your hands to loosen the shell.  Peel under running water. 
• Whole eggs that are to be used raw or added to a batter should not be beaten until all ingredients have been prepared and are ready to be used.  The bubbles that are beaten into the eggs will deflate quickly. 

Egg whites, bowl and beaters must be grease free.  Always start to beat slowly until small bubbles appear throughout.  Beating too fast at the beginning creates large unstable bubbles.  Adding cream of tartar after the whites form bubbles will stabilize the egg whites.  Do not add salt to the egg whites as that will decrease the volume.  Add sugar slowly after the whites begin to develop peaks. 
The whites will appear silvery with bubbles when beaten to the “foamy” stage.  “Soft peaks” means the peaks will slowly flop over when the beater is removed.  “Stiff peaks” means the eggs remain up-right in peaks when the beaters are removed and they don’t try to slide out of the bowl when it is tilted.  If they start to slip, turn the bowl upright and beat a little longer. 
 If batter is to be folded into beaten egg whites, lighten the batter first by adding ½ cup of the meringue.  Then gently fold the lightened batter into the remaining meringue. 
Whites may be frozen.  Defrost in refrigerator overnight and use immediately. 

Egg yolks are often used to add richness and thickening to foods like custards.  After separating, they may be covered by cold water and stored in the refrigerator.  Just pour the water off before using.
Cooking eggs or yolks too fast or at too high a temperature will cause them to curdle, or form lumps. 

Fats affect the texture and crumb of the cake or cookie and add moisture and flakiness. 

Margarine is similar to butter in its quality, but lacks the flavor.  It is made from vegetable oil with additives, including water.

Shortening has a high melting temperature and is used when the shape of the cookie is important.  Peanut butter’s fat content acts like shortening in baking. 

Animal Fats such as lard or suet are rarely used in modern baking.  That change made the foods healthier but resulted in differences in texture and flavor. 

• Butter will cause batters to spread before setting the shape of the cookie because of its low melting temperature.  But, that same quality adds to the flakiness of pastry. 

• Sweet/Unsalted has a smooth rich flavor. 
• Salted butter has a longer shelf life, but the salt can overpower the delicate flavor. 

Butter has softened when it indents slightly when pressed. 

• Lard is the by-product left after animal fat is heated to remove the grease.  The pioneers carefully strained and stored it.  The Germans used “schmeire” as a topping for bread. 
• Suet is the ground animal fat that flavors and moistens steamed puddings.  The butcher may be asked to prepare it or use a food processor to cut into small uniformed pieces.

 Oils used in cooking and baking fall into three categories:

• Olive is best if fresh and processed without heat or solvents.  It is used in salad dressings and sautéing. 
• Vegetable oils are usually neutral in flavor and used in dessert recipes.  Canola oil is a favorite.
• Specialty oils are often added in small amounts to flavor a vegetable oil.  Sesame, walnut and oils with garlic or spices are often used to season the dressing.

To flour a pan is to coat the sides and bottom of the pan to help the cake release after baking.  Put a tablespoon of flour in the pan and turn in all directions, tapping the sides. 

To flute or crimp is to create a decorative edge around the pastry.  The dough is finished by crimping it with fingers, the tines of a fork, or the edge of a spoon. 

To fold is a gentle way to combine ingredients keeping the batter light.  Air bubbles whipped into egg whites or cream must be preserved so the product will remain light and airy. 
Cut down in the center of the batter with a slotted spoon or flat whisk; move the spoon along the bottom of the bowl; slide up the side to the top.  This lifts the bottom ingredients to the top and encloses additional air in the batter. 
Turn the bowl and repeat until barely mixed. 

Garlic is a bulb or head that contains individual cloves.  Avoid using sprouting green shoots. 

• To peel individual cloves, place on cutting board.  Lay the wide side of a heavy knife on the clove and press down to break the skin away. 
• To peel lots of garlic, drop the cloves into boiling water, drain immediately.  The skin should be loosened. 

Garnish requires imagination, more than just a sprig of parsley. 

• Use croutons or bits of jicama, rolled in paprika to add crunch and color. 
• Pickled beets are a color and taste contrast. 
• Soak thin shavings of carrot or cucumber in ice water to form curls. 
• Cut two inch pieces of celery and split one end in 5 parallel cuts.  Soak in ice water for several hours and the ends will curl. 
• Cut and trim radishes to resemble roses or tulips

Gelatin is an odor-free and colorless thickening agent that may be added to baked goods to add moisture and softness. 

To avoid clumping, dry unflavored gelatin should be mixed with a little cold water first for 3 to 5 minutes to moisten and soften before adding hot water.  Store gelatin desserts in a covered container to avoid the formation of a thick rubbery skin on the surface.

• Too much sugar can inhibit gelatin from becoming firm and the softer the resultant gelatin will be.
• Firmness varies due to the ratio of water to gelatin and temperature. You can successfully melt down (gently using a double-boiler) and re-chill gelatin several times before the mixture loses its thickening ability.
• Gelatin takes twice as long to dissolve when used with cream or milk.
• When using sugar with unflavored gelatin, mix the sugar and gelatin first before dissolving.

Grains and Flours

Whole grains are one of the oldest cultivated foods.  As methods and equipment improved the grains like oats, corn, and wheat became readily available in various forms (whole, cracked, rolled, and as flour).

Wheat is a source of complex carbohydrates and some protein.  Whole grain wheat with bran and germ adds nutrition and fiber to many dishes.

• All-purpose flour is most often used as it has a lower gluten, or protein content than bread flour. 
• Cake flour has been ground to a finer powder, has less protein and creates a finer, more delicate crumb.  It contains a small amount of cornstarch.  Used in cookies as it helps the batter hold its shape better than all-purpose flour. 
• Pastry flour falls between all-purpose and cake flours.  To make your own, whisk together 1? cups all-purpose flour and ? cup cake flour to make 2 cups pastry flour. 
• Graham flour has a nutty, slightly sweet flavor and was developed by Rev. Sylvester Graham to improve the nutrition of breads and cereals.  Because it contains the bran and wheat germ, it needs to be refrigerated or frozen if storing for over a month. 
  15 graham cracker squares = 1 cup graham cracker crumbs
  Excess crackers may be frozen in zip-loc bags
• Whole wheat flour uses the whole wheat kernel, including the bran and wheat germ.  Needs to be refrigerated or frozen if not used in a month. 
• Bulgur is made from wheat berries that have been cooked, dried, and crushed.  It needs to be soaked for 20 minutes before using. 
• Couscous has a pleasant grainy texture.  It is made by steaming and drying cracked wheat.  A quick steaming is all that is required to prepare it. 
• Barley is mild, sweet and a little chewy.  The pearled grain is husked, steamed and then polished. 

Corn

• Cornmeal adds flavor and texture to desserts.  It is made from ground whole dried corn kernels.  Most dessert recipes call for fine grind unless otherwise specified.  As it does not contain gluten, it needs to be combined with wheat flour to allow it to rise. 
  Coarse grind is used for polenta.  Stone-ground flour or meal has the best flavor. 
• Cornstarch may be used as part of the flour in a recipe.  It has no protein and therefore adds lightness to the baked goods.  It is more often used for its thickening properties. 

Oats may be rolled, flaked, or ground.  It has no gluten and is dependent on wheat flour to act with the leavening agent.  Originally, oats were first considered a weed to be fed to cattle, but Northern Europe found that it could be raised as food for the people.  They are nutritious and flavorful.  Old-fashioned oatmeal, in red, white, and blue cardboard canisters, was first sold commercially in 1884. 

Rice

A popular grain used either whole or as rice flour in many cultures.  It needs to be cooked according to package directions.

• Short-grain rice is most suitable for puddings as the kernels readily absorb the liquid they are cooked in.  The grains are almost round.  It cooks to a softer texture and is stickier than long grained varieties.  Arborio is a popular short-grain rice often used in risotto.
• Long-grained rice, whether brown or white, remains separate after cooking and the most commonly used.  Brown rice takes longer to cook because it still has the bran coating.  Basmati rice, a variety of long-grained rice, is fragrant and actually can become longer in cooking.
• Wild rice is a misnomer.  These are grasses that grow in water. 
• Instant rice saves time but has lost flavor and texture. 

Grate or shred using a flat or 4 sided grater, rub food over the rough edge to make fine pieces of food or use food processor

Hull or husk, is to remove the outer covering from fruits like tomatillos, remove shells from nuts, or to pull stems or leaves off berries. 

Kuchen is German for cake.  I forget that some of my terms are foreign words as I have heard them all my life.  I apologize but it is difficult to not use the familiar terms like ‘mousse’ which is froth in French. 

Leavening or Raising Agents

Baking Powder is a combination of chemicals that when they come in contact with moisture creates tiny carbon dioxide bubbles.  The heat of the oven will cause the batter to create cell that hold the air until the batter becomes a firm sponge.  Bake products that use baking powder as soon as mixed or the bubbles will burst prematurely and the batter will fail to rise.  Its use inhibits the spreading of the cookie dough. 

Baking Soda requires the addition of an acidic liquid like buttermilk to allow it to bubble properly.  Other recipes will add Cream of Tartar to supply the acid environment. 

Egg Whites that are beaten until stiff will lighten the batter because as they cook they trap air

Yeast is a living organism and requires care.  To activate it needs proper level of warmth.  The liquid should be 100 degrees or the temperature that is comfortable when placed on the inside of your wrist.  If it gets too hot, it will die before being used.  Sprinkling ¼ teaspoon granulated sugar over the top of the yeast and water will feed and sustain it until ready to use.  The bubbly creation is called a Sponge. 

• Sourdough Starter or fresh yeast is a living organism.  It needs to be fed and burped and used regularly or it will sour and die. 
• One package dry granules may be substituted for one cake of yeast. 

Lettuce and Salad Greens come in four types:

• Iceberg is a compact heavy head of lettuce and used in most salads. 
• Butterhead like Bibb, and Boston, are darker green and have loose heads. 
• Romine is an elongated head that has a stronger flavor.
• Specialty greens, such as watercress, Mache, radicchio, escarole and endive, add color and contrasting flavors. 

Macerate is the process of soaking fruits in a liquid until the fruit softens and absorbs the flavor of the liquid. 

Malted Milk is a powder comprised of malt and powdered milk that was originally formulated to provide nutrition to babies and the elderly. 

Measuring needs to be done consistently and follow guidelines.  Spoon dry ingredients into measuring cup and level with the edge of knife or spatula.  Do not tap the cup to pack it.  The only ingredient that is pressed into the cup is brown sugar. 
Wet ingredients are measured in a glass cup with a pouring spout.  Hold the cup to eye level to read it.

Mortar and Pestles are used to grind ingredients together.  The pestle is a bowl that holds the seeds, etc. and the mortar is the tool that is used to press the stuff into the side of the bowl to crack or grind. 

Mushrooms are best if the caps are closed over the gills.  Clean by brushing any dirt off.  Do not soak in water. 

Nuts

Almond flour is ground blanched almonds.  In medieval times it was a thickener.  It can be made by grinding small batches of nuts in the food processor until a powder forms.  I don’t blanch the almonds as the most nutrients are in the skin and I like the color. 

Brazil Nuts grow inside a large woody shell.  Over fifteen pods are in each.  They are a very tough nut to crack and need to be frozen for storage as they can become rancid.  They are said to reduce inflammation. 

Cashews are only sold already shelled as the outer husk must be burned off.  They are a soft, mild nut. 

The Macadamia nut originated in Australia and is rich and buttery. 

Pecans are sweet, mild nuts often used in pies.  Walnuts may be substituted. 

The walnut is the oldest nut and came from Persia.  The Roman’s called it the Royal Nut of Jove, the king of the mythical gods.  The English variety is most readily available. Toasting brings out their flavor.   The Black walnut has a stronger flavor and is used in baked goods or some candies.  Its shell is very hard to crack and must be picked clear of shell fragments. 

Other nuts are becoming available.  Experiment with them to create a new treat. 

Onion hints:

• Raw yellow skinned, white, and red onions can be tamed if too strong by soaking the chopped onion in water for ten minutes and draining.
• Green onions are also called scallions, are thin immature onions that have not formed a bulb.  Cut off the roots and skin back the outside layer before washing.  Use both the white and green part. 
• Leeks need to be cut in half vertically and washed under water to remove any grit.  The dark green part is not used. 
• Shallots are made up of small bulbs in a cluster.  The flavor is mild.  Elephant garlic is a good substitute for shallots.  

Pasta is made from wheat flour.  Noodles usually contain eggs, macaroni doesn’t. 

Cook the dried pasta in lots of fiercely boiling salted water (about 4 to 5 quarts to 1 pound of pasta).  If not enough water, the pasta will stick as it swells.  Stir often.  Cook until there is no flour taste and it is still firm when you bite it.  Drain in a colander.  For salads, rinse in cold water and drain again.  For casseroles, stir a little oil or butter into the cooked pasta to keep it from sticking. 

Pastry blender is a device with four or five curved wires or blades used to cut shortening into flour.  It can also slice bananas and eggs. 

Peppers used in salads are sweet bells, green, red, or yellow, not the hot chili type.  Remove the stem, seeds and soft pith before slicing. 

Pith is the white bitter membrane between the citrus fruit and the colored peel. 

Potatoes come in three types:  bakers, waxy, and all-purpose. 

• Bakers, like russets, have thick brown skins and mash apart when cooked. 
• New and red potatoes have thin skins and are examples of waxy potatoes.  They hold their shape when sliced or diced. 
• The long white is large like a baker, but holds it shape.  It peels easy after it is cooked. 

Keep in dry, dark place away from onions.  Do not store in the refrigerator as it changes the starch content and flavor.  Cut out any green areas and the “eyes” before cooking.  Use salted water when boiling as less salt will be needed later. 

Radish has a peppery zing and adds a crunch to salads. 

Ricing is pressing food through a large cup with holes on the sides and bottom or press through a strainer. 

Rind or zest is the colored outer part of the citrus peel that is scraped off using a zester.  The flavor is in the oils found in the colored part.  Use a clean pastry brush to remove all the rind from the zester.  The finest grater may be used or remove the rind with a vegetable peeler.  Scrape away any white pulp as that is bitter.  Sprinkle a little sugar over the strips of peel and then chop very finely with a knife.  Adding the peel with the fat in cake and cookie recipes, allows the flavor to be released and absorbed. 

Rolling Pins come in wood, marble, and metal.  Some are hollow and may be filled with ice to keep pastry cool.  Handles may be fixed or have roller bearings, but which is best is a personal decision. 

My irreplaceable rolling pin is my grandmother’s Springli roller.  It has rectangular impressions carved in the wood to leave a picture on the dough.  In the 18th century, they were given as engagement presents and were passed through the generations. 

Rotary Beater is made up of two sets of wires that are turned by a handle to beat things together.  A whisk may be substituted. 

Sauté is cooking at medium to low heat in oil until soft.  Food needs to be at room temperature and put in shallow skillet so it won’t steam. 

Scalded Milk is heated slowly to a temperature below boiling.  To reduce the chance of scorching or burning, rinse the pan in water before pouring in the milk and heating it. 
Since milk is now pasteurized, scalding is not necessary to kill an enzyme in milk, but is now done to speed the cooking time. 

Shred to use grater to cut ingredient into very narrow strips

Sift is the process of using a flour sifter or sieve to lighten and combine dry ingredients.  Because of the modern milling process, flour no longer needs to be sifted before measuring.  I prefer to whisk the dry ingredients together. 

Simmer means to heat liquid until bubbles form at edge, but don’t break or move around.

Skim is to carefully remove the top layer.  Or, is a term used for non-fat milk. 

Spices and Flavorings

Whisk ground seasonings into flour before adding to batters.  They will spread more evenly.  Add liquid flavorings to the creamed shortening as fat holds the flavor. 

To grind spices, use a coffee grinder.  Remove loose powder with a pastry brush and then grind a piece of bread.  This will remove the oils from the spices.  Re-clean the grinder before storing. 

• Allspice is not a mixture of spices, but is a dried seed that is best when freshly ground.  Because of its fragrance, allspice oil is often used in men’s toiletries, like Old Spice.  Substitute ½ teaspoon ground cinnamon and ? teaspoon ground cloves for 1 teaspoon allspice. 
• Anise has a licorice taste and comes from two distinctive sources.  Anise seed and oil comes from a European plant that resembles wild carrots.  Romans used it to settle upset tummies. 
  Star anise is the fruit of an evergreen shrub.  Small seeds are inside the dark brown star. 
• Cardamom, Grains of Paradise, is related to ginger.  The seed pods contain about 20 tiny seeds that you remove and add to the dish.  They may be ground.  Discard the husk. 
• Cinnamon is from the bark of a tree grown in Indonesia and is available ground, in sticks (or quills), and oil.  It has been considered to be an aphrodisiac.  It used to calm gaseous stomachs and is known to help the body use insulin. 
  When choosing sticks, look for ones that curl in one roll.  Cinnamon’s more bitter cousin, Cassia curls toward the center from both sides.  Ground cinnamon is a dark, warm tan color, while cassia is more reddish brown. 
• Cloves are shaped like nail with a small ball at the tip.  They are often inserted whole into foods to add flavor and to decorate.  Ground it adds oomph. 
• Ginger alleviates gas and motion sickness.  It is the root of a lily-like plant.  If chopping fresh ginger, peel the root, and sprinkle a little sugar over the pieces before completing the cuts.  The sugar will absorb the juices.  Fresh ginger may be frozen for up to 2 months.  Slice off the amount needed and return remainder to the freezer. 
• Nutmeg and Mace are related.  Mace is the red lacy outer covering of the nutmeg seed.  It has a taste similar to cinnamon with a little pepper added.  Whole nutmeg seeds are grated and have a sweet, nutty taste and smell. 
• Vanilla beans were used by the Aztecs to flavor chocolate drinks sweets, and stews.  The bean is the fruit of an orchid plant.  The plant only produces one bloom which lives for only one day.  It is pollinated by hand so a bean pod will develop.  After maturing for over 9 months, the pod is harvested by hand, treated and aged for 6 months to develop the unique aroma and flavor.  When the brown wrinkled bean is slit open, the tiny seeds inside are scraped out.  The aroma is sensuous.  Is it any surprise it has been used in perfume?  Remove the pod from food before serving. 
  One teaspoon vanilla extract equals one vanilla bean.

Strainer is a small metal bowl of small wire mesh and a handle.  It is used to separate liquid from solids. 

Sweeteners

Honey absorbs and retains moisture so is used to keep baked goods fresh.  Baked goods using honey as the primary sweetener need the oven temperature reduced by 25 degrees.  Honey is twice as sweet as sugar.  Honey was probably the first sweetener man discovered.  It was used as currency in ancient Rome and as a medicine. 
Twelve fluid ounces of honey is equal to 1 cup. 

Sugars

The first sugar came from sugarcane.  It is ground and pressed to release its juice, which is boiled until crystals are formed.  This process originated in India about 500 BC. 

• Brown sugar is not as processed as white sugar and retains some of the molasses flavor.  The granules are slightly larger and it is used to color and flavor foods.  Brown sugar also absorbs moisture from the air and will help keep baked goods moist longer. 
  To help keep it from becoming like a rock, put a piece of citrus rind into the bag or box and slide it into a zip lock plastic bag.  If it has hardened, place in microwave for 30 seconds.  Measure when soft as it will re-harden as it cools. 
  1 pound box of brown sugar = 3 cups loose packed sugar or 2 cups packed. 
• Granulated or white is the most common grind of sugar.  To keep it from forming lumps, place a couple of saltine crackers in the container and cover tightly. 
  1 pound box of granulated sugar = 2? cups
• Powdered or Confectioners is very finely ground sugar that has a little cornstarch mixed in to prevent clumping. 
  1 pound box of powdered sugar = approximately 3½ cups
• Superfine or Castor sugar is sugar ground almost to a powder.  Because it dissolves easily, it is best for meringues and custards. 

Syrup

• Corn syrup is a product of cornstarch.  It helps prevent crystallization.  Light and dark may be used interchangeably, if color is not a problem. 
• Golden syrup is used by the British and is made from sugar cane.  It may be found in import markets or on the internet.  Light Maple syrup may be substituted. 
• Maple syrup is New England’s contribution to sweetening.  It comes from the sap of the maple tree and is sweeter than sugar.  It should be refrigerated after opening. 
• Molasses is separated from the sugar crystals during the refining process.  Light and dark may be used interchangeably, but blackstrap is usually not used as it is bitter.  An equal amount of honey or corn syrup may be substituted for molasses.

Softened means the butter, margarine, or cream cheese has been allowed to warm to a temperature that allows the cube to bend slightly, but not get so soft that it turns the batter loose or greasy.  It actually may look curdled.  Allow about 30 to 45 minutes at room temperature. 

Tempering is a term used for different processes. 

• To temper egg whites is to add a small amount of the beaten egg whites to the warm custard or batter before folding the lightened mixture into the remaining egg whites.  This helps protect the air bubbles from deflating. 
• Tempering cream or egg yolks before adding to a hot liquid reduces the likelihood that the cream will curdle.  Heat the cream or milk by putting some of the boiling liquid into the milk or cream to warm it before adding to the sauce. 
• When used for chocolate, it means to prepare the solid chocolate to melt and then become a hard coating.  After the chocolate is melted to a 110 degree temperature, cool it to 70 degrees while beating until it loses its gloss and become thick (About 84 degrees).  It may then be reheated to 88 to 90 degrees to allow it to be used for dipping. 
  Already tempered chocolate is available at craft store and produces a reliable product.  It is so much easier. 

Thickeners

• Cornstarch is made from the tender heart of the corn kernel and used to thicken sauces.  Cornstarch has twice the thickening power of flour and produces an almost clear sauce.  Never boil a cornstarch pie filling longer than 3 minutes or it will begin to thin.  Stirring it too much after it is cooked will also cause the filling to break down.  Arrowroot may be used as a substituted for cornstarch.  One Tablespoon equals 2 teaspoons cornstarch.
  Puddings made from cornstarch so not freeze well and are best used within 24 hours. 
• Egg and egg yolks are used to thicken as the lecithin in the yolk is an excellent binder. 
• Flour is a great thickener, but the sauce is opaque.  Cornstarch or Arrowroot (1 ½ teaspoons for each tablespoon of flour) may be substituted for flour. 
• Gelatin is a thickening agent or binder that ‘blooms’ when softened in cold water.  The granules swell. Then are dissolved in hot liquid and cooled to form a soft solid.  It is often used in deserts as a stabilizer and will be blended into the sauce. 
  Flavored jello is often used to add flavor and color.  It may be used in its dry packaged form without hydrating because it has been mixed with sugar and will disperse evenly in the product. 
  Gelatin may be dissolved in the microwave if care is used.  In a microwave safe cup, stir 1 envelope of plain gelatin into ¼ cup cold water.  Heat, uncovered, at full power for 35 to 45 seconds. 
• Tapioca maybe in pearl sized balls or a fine textured granule.  It is the quick-cooking granule that is used to thicken sauces and pies.  One Tablespoon tapioca will replace an equal amount of cornstarch. 

Toss is to lift ingredients up and let fall back into bowl until lightly mixed. 

Tomatoes should be stored at room temperature with the stem side up as the shoulder is the tenderest part.  Do not refrigerate until fully ripe. 

• To peel, cut an x in the blossom end and slide into boiling water for 60 seconds.  Remove with slotted spoon and place in ice water.  Cut out the core and pull skin back. 
• To seed, cut in halve horizontally and squeeze seeds out into receptacle. 

To Taste means to adjust the seasoning until you think it tastes better. 

Vegetable Peeler is an implement used to remove the skin from a fruit or vegetable.  A paring knife will also work, but it usually removes more of the flesh with the peel. 

Vinegar

• Malt has a sweeter, yeasty flavor and comes from ale. 
• Cider is tart and made from apple juice.
• Rice has a clean, mellow taste
• Fermented wine creates wine vinegar.
• Balsamic is intense with a sweet-tart flavor
• Flavored has herbs or fruit seeped in the vinegar

Water Chestnuts are found in the canned Chinese food section.  Jicama, a vegetable found in many produce sections can be substituted. 

Whip is to beat very quickly or at high speed.  This incorporates air into the product and increases volume. 

Whisk is a utensil made of thin wire loops.  To whisk is to gently beat with a utensil that is made of thin wire until smooth. 

Zester is a small grater with tiny holes used to grate off the peel of a citrus fruit.  It may form long skinny strips or granules.  The fruit may be peeled by a vegetable peeler, the white pith scraped off and then cut into thin pieces.  Or, placed in a food processor with some sugar to grind into small bits.

Copyright 2005-2008 © Margretta Schleich
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